Written by:
Anoushka Pinto
India has seen a big surge in the number of cancer cases in recent years, and is now the third-largest country in the world in terms of cancer incidence. The International Agency for Research on Cancer’s GLOBOCAN project (2012) predicted that by 2035, India will have over 1.5 million new cancer cases annually, with the number of cancer-related deaths expected to be around 1.2 million.
The rise in cancer cases in India can be attributed to factors such as the aging population, longer life expectancy, high prevalence of changeable risk factors (like smoking, consuming tobacco), and non-existent or poorly set up prevention programs in primary and secondary healthcare centres.
The 3 most commonly occurring cancers in India are breast cancer, cervical cancer and oral cancer, that together make up about 35% of all cancer cases, making it a huge public health concern. According to the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the survival rates for cancer detected early are promising: 60.2% for oral cancer, 76.3% for breast cancer, and 73.2% for cervical cancer. However, these rates drop when it comes to advanced stage cancer.
Screening can play a big role in prevention and early detection of cancer, and thereby also improve survival rates. Despite the country’s population density and rising cancer incidence rates, which have direct economic impacts, India still hasn’t integrated mandatory cancer screening practices into its healthcare system, like some other countries have.
In a diverse country like India, personalised screenings become indispensable given the genetic and lifestyle factors that contribute to varying cancer risks. Regular screening helps identify cancers at an early stage, often before symptoms appear, and improves treatment outcomes.
Types of cancer screening in India
Various cancer screening methods are available to detect different types of cancers early:
Physical examinations
The doctors perform thorough physical exams to spot any signs of disease, like lumps or other abnormalities.
Lab tests
These tests involve checking tissue, urine, and blood samples to identify markers of cancer. They can also do genetic tests to find changes in genes linked to specific types of cancer.
Imaging tests
Tests like mammograms, X-rays and MRIs are used to create detailed images of the inside of the body. This helps spot any tumours or other irregularities that could point to cancer.
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Benefits of screening and early detection
In India, where cancer accounts for a significant portion of all deaths, early detection can make a crucial difference. Breast, cervical, lung, and stomach cancers are prevalent, but catching them early can lead to more successful treatments. Early-stage cancers are often smaller and localised, making them easier to treat and increasing the likelihood of a cure. For instance, research by the Indian Council of Medical Research found that women who underwent regular mammograms were 30% less likely to succumb to breast cancer compared to those who did not receive screenings.
Other benefits include:
Increased treatment options
Early detection provides patients with a wider range of treatment options, including less invasive procedures and targeted therapies. This can lead to better quality of life during and after treatment.
Reduced mortality rates
Identifying cancer in its early stages can significantly reduce mortality rates. Early treatment can halt the progression of the disease and prevent it from becoming more advanced and difficult to treat.
Lower treatment costs
Treating cancer at an early stage is generally less costly than treating advanced-stage cancer. Early detection can help avoid the need for expensive treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
Enhanced quality of life
Early detection and treatment can minimize the physical and emotional impact of cancer on patients and their families. It can help preserve bodily functions and overall well-being, allowing individuals to maintain a higher quality of life.
Empowerment through knowledge
Screening programs raise awareness about cancer risk factors, symptoms, and preventive measures. They empower individuals to take charge of their health by adopting healthier lifestyles and seeking timely medical care.
Empowerment through knowledge
Screening programs raise awareness about cancer risk factors, symptoms, and preventive measures. They empower individuals to take charge of their health by adopting healthier lifestyles and seeking timely medical care.
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Screening tests specific to common cancers affecting the Indian populace
In India, there are several screening tests available to detect different types of cancers, and they each have varying costs.
1. Liver Cancer
Liver cancer develops in the liver cells due to mutations in their DNA. It is one of the most commonly occurring cancer, with 30,000 – 50,0000 cases in India, per year. People with cirrhosis, chronic infection with Hepatitis B or Hepatitis C virus, liver diseases, diabetes and fatty liver diseases are at an increased risk of liver cancer. Furthermore, exposure to aflatoxins and addiction to alcohol can also be a cause.
Ages 21 – 75:
- Liver ultrasound every six months.
- Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) blood test every six months.
Liver ultrasound: A non-invasive imaging test that uses sound waves to create detailed images of the liver and surrounding organs.
Cost: Around ₹1,200
Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) blood test: AFP is a protein that may be elevated in individuals with liver cancer. Regular AFP blood tests can help detect any changes that may indicate the presence of liver cancer.
Cost: Around ₹369 – ₹480
2. Kidney Cancer
Kidney cancer, also known as renal cancer, is one among the top most common cancer affecting both men and women in India.It develops when cells in the kidneys start to proliferate, forming a tumour. If these cancerous cells are not identified, they can infiltrate nearby tissues and potentially metastasize to other areas of the body. Risk factors for kidney cancer include smoking, obesity, hypertension, exposure to certain chemicals and toxins, and genetic predisposition. Environmental pollution, including air and water pollution, may expose individuals to carcinogens that can also increase the risk of kidney cancer.
- Individuals at increased risk of kidney cancer may require periodic imaging examinations to monitor for any signs of the disease.
- Routine medical checkups in individuals at average risk.
Ultrasound: This imaging technique uses sound waves to detect abnormal growths or tumours in the kidneys, by providing detailed pictures of the kidney structures.
Cost: Around ₹500
Computed Tomography (CT) scan: CT scan utilizes X-rays and computer technology to create cross-sectional images of the kidneys that help detect abnormal growths or tumours in the kidneys. They provide detailed information about the tumour size, location, and characteristics.
Cost: ₹2,500 – ₹5,000
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves to detect abnormal growths or tumours in the kidneys and provide valuable information about their composition and surrounding structures.
Cost: ₹5,000 – ₹12,000
Urine test: A urine test or urinalysis, analyses a urine sample to help identify signs of kidney damage or the presence of blood, which can then indicate the presence of tumours or other kidney-related issues.
Cost: ₹310
Blood test: Blood tests, such as serum creatinine or blood urea nitrogen (BUN) tests, are used to assess kidney function and detect any abnormalities in the blood that may indicate kidney disease or dysfunction. Additionally, specific blood markers, such as certain proteins or enzymes, may be measured to screen for kidney cancer.
Cost: ₹330
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3. Lung cancer
Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in women and the leading cause of cancer deaths, as well as the foremost cause for cancer-related fatalities among men. This cancer originates within the lungs, and the risk is heightened by tobacco-smoking and exposure to passive smoking, radon gas, and asbestos. Additionally, prior radiation therapy can contribute to its development, manifesting in complications such as severe bone and muscle pain, chest fluid accumulation, and hemoptysis. A 2008 GLOBOCAN report indicated that the male-female lung cancer ratio is 4.5:1.
- Age 50 – 80: Annual scan for current or former smokers with a 20 pack-year smoking history.
- Screening is not recommended for individuals with serious health issues that are likely to shorten their lifespan or for those who are unwilling or unable to undergo treatment if lung cancer is detected.
Low-Dose Computed Tomography (LDCT): Screens for lung cancer by taking detailed images of the chest.
Cost: ₹5,000 – ₹10,000
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Computed Tomography (CT) scan: Used to further characterise lung nodules detected during LDCT screening by distinguishing between benign and malignant lesions.
Cost: ₹10,000 – ₹35,000
4. Blood cancer
Blood cancer is a broad term used to refer to cancers that affect blood cells or the bone marrow, where these cells are produced. It occurs when some blood cells become abnormal and spread uncontrollably, disrupting the normal functions of the blood and immune system. According to various sources, India has the third-highest number of reported blood cancer cases globally, following the US and China. In India, someone is diagnosed with blood cancer every five minutes, and approximately 70,000 people die from this disease each year.
- Routine screening for blood cancer is not recommended for the general population.
- High risk individuals: Screening is primarily focused on individuals with high risk or presenting symptoms suggestive of blood cancer.
- Individuals with a family history of blood cancers or genetic predispositions (such as certain hereditary syndromes) should undergo regular check-ups.
- Survivors of certain cancers or those who have received chemotherapy/radiation therapy might be at increased risk and should have regular follow-ups.
- Individuals with significant exposure to radiation, certain chemicals (e.g., benzene), or other known carcinogens should be monitored for signs of blood cancer.
Physical examination: A thorough physical examination involves checking the body for visible signs and symptoms, such as enlarged lymph nodes, unusual lumps, or other abnormalities that might indicate the presence of blood cancer.
Cost: ₹600 – ₹1,000
Blood tests: They help detect abnormal cell counts, types, and characteristics like unusual levels of white or red blood cells and platelets, which may indicate leukaemia or other blood cancers.
Cost: ₹4,000 – ₹5,000
Flow Cytometry Immunophenotyping: This test analyses the physical and chemical characteristics of cells in a fluid as they pass through a laser. It helps identify specific cell types, including cancerous cells, based on the presence of certain markers on the cell surface.
Cost: Around ₹3,500
Immunohistochemistry: Immunohistochemistry is a special staining process that uses antibodies to detect specific proteins in cells from a tissue sample. It detects molecules which are usually markers to identify benign or malignant cells.
Cost: ₹6,500 – ₹8,500
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test: PCR tests are used in blood cancer testing to identify minute quantities of cancerous DNA or RNA in a patient’s blood or bone marrow, aiding in the diagnosis, monitoring treatment response, and detecting minimal residual disease or relapse.
Cost: Around ₹7,000
Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS): NGS is an advanced molecular technique used in blood cancer testing to analyze genetic variations and mutations at a high resolution. NGS can provide detailed information about genetic abnormalities associated with various types of blood cancers.
Cost: Around ₹20,000
X-rays: X-rays produce images of the inside of the body using radiation. They help visualise the extent of cancer spread, particularly in bones and the chest, and can reveal involvement of lymph nodes and other organs.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹1,000
Computed Tomography (CT) scan: CT scans use X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body to detect and monitor the spread and involvement of cancer in the lymph nodes and other organs,
Cost: ₹5,000 – ₹10,000
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan: PET scans use radioactive tracers to detect areas of high metabolic activity, which often indicate the presence of cancer cells. It is particularly useful for identifying the extent of blood cancer spread and assessing lymph node involvement.
Cost: ₹10,000 – ₹35,000
5. Colorectal cancer
Colorectal cancer starts in the colon or rectum, usually affecting people over 50 years old. A medical history of colon cancer or noncancerous colon polyps (a small growth in the colon or rectum) can trigger its development. Moreover, people suffering from chronic inflammatory diseases, obesity or diabetes can also be at risk. Though there is no particular cause behind it, colon cancer might develop due to damage in the DNA of colon cells.
Colon and rectal cancer are one of the most common cancers among Indian males, but can also affect women. According to a 2018 GLOBOCAN India report, the annual incidence rate of 4.4 and 4.1 per 1,00,000 men, respectively.
- Age 45 onwards: Everyone should start screening. People who are in good health and with a life expectancy of more than 10 years should continue regular colorectal cancer screening through age 75.
- Ages 76 – 85: For people ages 76 to 85, the decision to be screened should be based on a person’s preferences, life expectancy, health, and screening history.
- Age 85 and above: Colorectal cancer screening is no longed needed
High-risk individuals may need earlier and more frequent screening
Faecal Immunochemical Test (FIT): Detects hidden blood in the stool, which can be a sign of colorectal cancer or large polyps. It is a non-invasive test that is done annually.
Cost: Around ₹2,100
Faecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT): Uses a chemical reaction to detect hidden blood in the stool and is done annually.
Cost: Around ₹160
Colonoscopy: An endoscopic procedure where a flexible tube with a camera is inserted into the rectum to examine the entire colon for polyps and cancer. It is typically done every 10 years.
Cost: Around ₹3,350
Computed Tomography (CT) Colonography: Also known as virtual colonoscopy, this test uses CT imaging to create detailed pictures of the colon and rectum. It is a non-invasive procedure done every five years.
Cost: ₹3,190 to ₹9,315
Flexible Sigmoidoscopy: Similar to a colonoscopy, but only examines the lower part of the colon. It is a less invasive procedure usually done every five years.
Cost: ₹8,000 – ₹15,000
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6. Skin cancer
Skin cancer in India is relatively less common compared to Western countries, but its incidence is gradually increasing. It is primarily caused by ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning devices. It can also develop from burns or other injuries to the skin. Other risk factors include family history of skin cancer, certain chemicals and environmental pollutants.
Patients are often encouraged to perform regular self-examinations to identify any new or changing moles or spots on their skin.
Visual examination: A thorough skin examination by a dermatologist is the first step in screening for skin cancer. The dermatologist looks for any abnormal moles, growths, or lesions that may indicate skin cancer.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹600
Dermascopy: A dermascope is a device that allows dermatologists to examine the skin more closely. It magnifies and illuminates the skin, providing a detailed view of skin lesions and helping to distinguish between benign and malignant growths.
Cost: Unknown
7. Oral cancer
Oral Cancer develops in the tissues of the mouth and throat, but can also start in the lips, cheeks, tongue, gums, floor of the mouth, palate, and areas behind the wisdom teeth. Though often caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, tobacco use and sun exposure are also common contributors. Oral cancer is the sixth most common cancer globally and ranks among the top three cancers in India, comprising 30% of all cases. Though more prevalent in males, it is significant among females too.
Ages 30 – 65: All men and women should get screened, once in 5 years
Physical examination: A thorough inspection of the mouth and throat conducted by a dentist or doctor to detect any abnormalities or signs of oral cancer.
Cost: ₹200 – ₹600
Endoscopy: A flexible tube with a camera (endoscope) is inserted into the mouth and throat to visually examine the interior structures for signs of abnormalities, lesions, or tumours.
Cost: ₹1,000 – ₹3,000
Mucosal staining: A Special dye, such as toluidine blue stain, is applied to the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat. This stain highlights abnormal cells, aiding in the detection of precancerous or cancerous lesions.
Cost: Unknown
X-ray: X-rays are often used to detect abnormalities in the bones and teeth of the jaw and skull, which can indicate oral cancer or its complications.
Cost: ₹325 – ₹640
Computed Tomography (CT) scan: A diagnostic imaging procedure that uses X-rays and computer technology to detect and evaluate oral cancer by providing detailed views of the oral cavity, throat, and nearby structures to assess the extent of the disease.
Cost: ₹1,350 – ₹4,662
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan: MRI scans are useful for evaluating oral cancer, particularly for assessing the involvement of soft tissues, lymph nodes, and nearby structures.
Cost: ₹3,150 – ₹4,500
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Computed Tomography (CT) scan: PET-CT scans are helpful in detecting and staging oral cancer by highlighting areas of increased metabolic activity, such as cancerous tumours and metastases, which may not be visible on other imaging tests alone.
Cost: ₹10,000 – ₹35,000
8. Pancreatic cancer
Pancreatic cancer starts in the tissues of the pancreas, the organ responsible for releasing enzymes that aid your digestion while producing hormones for managing your blood sugar levels. Though there are no specific causes behind this cancer, some common risk factors include smoking, obesity, diabetes, pancreatitis and a family history of pancreatic cancer.
- Age 35 onwards: Patients with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.
- Age 40 onwards: CDKN2A and PRSS1 mutation carriers with hereditary pancreatitis.
- 10 years younger than the age of initial familial onset: Begin screening for high-risk individuals.
- Ages 50 and above: Begin screening for average risk individuals
- Routine Screening: Intervals of 12 months if no concerning pancreatic lesions are found.
- Relatives of patients with familial pancreatic cancer should consider genetic testing and counselling.
- High-risk patients developing new-onset diabetes should undergo additional diagnostic studies or a change in the surveillance interval.
- Patients discover to have lesions:
- Low-risk lesions: Consider EUS every 6-12 months as directed by a multidisciplinary team.
- Indeterminate lesions: EUS evaluation within 3-6 months.
- High-risk lesions: EUS evaluation within 3 months if surgical resection is not planned.
Computed Tomography (CT) scan: CT scans are performed with a specific protocol to visualise the pancreas and surrounding structures, aiding in the detection and staging of pancreatic tumours.
Cost: ₹7,000 – ₹10,000
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI is particularly useful for visualising soft tissues, including the pancreas, and can provide information about the size, location, and characteristics of pancreatic tumours.
Cost: ₹3,000 – ₹8,000
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Computed Tomography – (CT) scan: PET-CT scans may be used to detect abnormal metabolic activity associated with pancreatic tumours and to assess the extent of disease spread.
Cost: ₹10,000 – ₹35,000
Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS): A small, flexible tube with an ultrasound probe at its tip is inserted through the mouth or rectum to visualise the pancreas and surrounding structures. It provides high-resolution images and allows for detailed examination of the pancreas, nearby lymph nodes, and blood vessels.
Cost: ₹1,000 – ₹3,000
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9. Esophageal cancer
When cells within the Esophagus undergo harmful DNA mutations and begin to spread abnormally, it leads to the formation of a tumour, resulting in esophageal cancer. Individuals aged 45 and above are at a heightened risk of developing esophageal cancer, although it can affect individuals across all age groups. Men are notably four times more likely to be affected compared to women.
According to the Indian Council of Medical Research, the age-standardised incidence rate (ASR) for esophageal cancer in India stands at 6.5 per 100,000 population for males and 4.2 per 100,000 population for females. This equates to an estimated 47,000 new cases annually, resulting in approximately 42,000 deaths.
Currently, there are no established guidelines for routine screening of esophageal cancers, except for individuals deemed to be at high risk of its development.
Esophagoscopy: This procedure involves the insertion of a slender, tube-like instrument known as an esophagoscope through either the mouth or nose and down the throat into the Esophagus to examine for any anomalous regions.
Cost: Unknown
Brush cytology: This method entails the collection of cells from the esophagal lining using a specialised brush, which are then scrutinised under a microscope.
Cost: Around ₹2,600
Balloon cytology: During this procedure, the patient ingests a deflated balloon, which is then inflated to retrieve cells from the esophagal lining before being withdrawn. The collected cells on the balloon are later examined under a microscope.
Cost: Unknown
Chromoendoscopy: In this technique, a dye is sprayed onto the esophagal lining during an esophagoscopy.
Cost: ₹12,000 – ₹18,000
Fluorescence spectroscopy: In this procedure, a specialised light probe emitting a distinct light is passed through an endoscope. The amount of light given off by cells in the Esophagus lining is measured. Reduced light emission from specific areas of the Esophagus lining may indicate cancer.
Cost: Around ₹15,000
10. Stomach cancer
Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, originates in the cells lining the stomach and can spread to other parts of the body if not detected early. Stomach cancer is the 5th most prevalent cancer in India, with around 70,000 new cases diagnosed annually. This disease is more commonly observed in men than in women and it most commonly affects individuals over the age of 60.
- Age 40 and above: Screening is recommended annually or once every two years primarily for individuals at high risk, including those with a family history of stomach cancer, previous history of gastric ulcers or chronic gastritis, and those infected with Helicobacter pylori.
- Routine screening is not widely recommended for the general population due to the relatively lower incidence of stomach cancer compared to other regions such as East Asia.
Upper endoscopy: An upper endoscopy involves inserting a thin, flexible tube with a camera (endoscope) through the mouth and into the stomach. This allows doctors to view the stomach lining directly and take biopsies of suspicious areas.
Cost: ₹2,000 – ₹15,000
Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) series: This test involves drinking a barium solution that coats the lining of the stomach and intestines. X-rays are then taken to visualize the outline of the upper digestive tract, helping to identify abnormalities.
Cost: Around ₹1,500
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan: A CT scan uses multiple X-ray images taken from different angles to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body. This helps in detecting tumours, determining their size, and assessing if the cancer has spread.
Cost: ₹1350 – ₹4662
Endoscopic ultrasound: This procedure combines endoscopy and ultrasound to obtain detailed images of the stomach and surrounding tissues. An endoscope with an ultrasound probe at its tip is inserted through the mouth, providing high-resolution images and allowing for tissue sampling.
Cost: ₹1000 – ₹3000
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan: A PET scan involves injecting a small amount of radioactive sugar into the body. Cancer cells absorb the sugar more rapidly than normal cells, and the scanner detects these areas of high radioactivity, indicating potential cancerous activity.
Cost: ₹10,000 – ₹35,000
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): An MRI uses powerful magnets and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in the body. It is particularly useful for visualizing soft tissues and detecting the extent of cancer spread.
Cost: ₹3,000 – ₹8,000
Chest X-ray: A chest X-ray uses a small amount of radiation to produce images of the chest area, including the lungs and heart. It helps determine if stomach cancer has spread to the lungs.
Cost: ₹210 – ₹450
Laparoscopy: Laparoscopy is a minimally invasive surgical procedure where a laparoscope (a thin tube with a camera) is inserted through a small incision in the abdomen. It allows doctors to directly view the abdominal organs and take tissue samples to check for cancer spread.
Cost: ₹33,250 – ₹65,500
11. Laryngeal cancer
Laryngeal cancer typically begins around the vocal cords, in the larynx, where it can affect voice quality. Even a small tumour in this area can disrupt vocal cord vibration, leading to changes in voice. Occasionally, the cancer may develop in other parts of the larynx. While there isn’t a single cause for laryngeal cancer, certain factors raise the risk. Smoking and heavy alcohol consumption are significant risk factors, as is exposure to sulphuric acid mist. Most cases occur in individuals over 50, and men are more commonly affected than women.
- Currently, there are no established guidelines recommending routine screening for laryngeal cancer in the general population without symptoms.
- Regular assessment of patients’ risk factors during routine health check-ups and advising high-risk individuals on the need for targeted screening.
- Individuals considered high-risk are recommended to get screened as early as possible.
Chest X-ray: Your doctor may request a chest x-ray if you experience shortness of breath or persistent hoarseness, which could be a sign of laryngeal cancer
Cost: ₹210 – ₹450
Examining your mouth and neck: A physical examination where the doctor looks inside your mouth and feels around your neck. to detect any swollen or abnormal areas.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹3,000
Neck lymph nodes examination: Checking for swollen or abnormal lymph nodes in the neck to detect any lumps that might indicate the spread of cancer.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹3,000
Nasoendoscopy: A procedure to look inside the nose, mouth, and throat using a flexible tube with a light and camera. It inspects the nasal passages, throat, and upper part of the food pipe for abnormalities.
Cost: ₹6,438 to ₹8,584
Laryngoscopy: A test to look inside the throat and upper part of the Esophagus using a laryngoscope. It visually examines the larynx and detects any tumours or abnormal growths.
Cost: ₹97,643 – ₹1,43,233
Computed Tomography (CT) scan: A detailed imaging test that uses X-rays to provide detailed images of the larynx, neck, and chest to detect tumours and assess their size and spread.
Cost: ₹1,350 – ₹4,662
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan: An imaging test that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce highly detailed images of the larynx and surrounding tissues to detect cancerous growths.
Cost: ₹3,000 – ₹8,000
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – Computed Tomography – (CT) scan: Used to identify active cancer cells and assess the spread of cancer throughout the body.
Cost: ₹10,000 – ₹35,000
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Screening tests specific to cancers affecting women
In India, there are several screening tests available to detect different types of cancers in women, and they each have varying costs.
1. Breast cancer
Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in India. It originates in the milk-producing glands of the best. While the risk of breast cancer increases with ages, it can occur at any age. The factors that elevate this risk include being overweight or obese, having a family history of breast cancer, and certain genetic mutations like BRCA1 and BRCA2.
The following screening protocols are recommended for breast cancer:
- Ages 40 – 44: Women may choose to begin annual mammograms.
- Ages 45 – 54: Annual mammograms are recommended.
- Ages 55 and older: Mammograms every two years or continue yearly screening.
Mammography: A low-dose X-ray procedure used to detect cancer by identifying differences in skin thickness or density
Cost: ₹1,500 to ₹3,000 per test
Clinical Breast Exam (CBE): Performed by a healthcare provider to check for lumps or other changes.
Cost: ₹300 to ₹800
2. Cervical cancer
Cervical cancer develops in the opening of the uterus, or the cervix, primarily due to infection with the human Papillomavirus (HPV), which is transmitted sexually. Though not many women with HPV develop cervical cancer, the risk increase with age and number of sexual partners.
- Ages 21 and onwards: You should get a Pap smear test and HPV test every 3 years.
- Ages 30 onwards:
- Women who have had 3 consecutive normal Pap test results should undergo screening every 5 years using both a Pap smear and a test for high-risk HPV infection.
- Women with specific risk factors, including exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) before birth, HIV infection, or a weakened immune system from organ transplants, chemotherapy, or chronic steroid use, should undergo annual screenings.
- Ages 65-70 years of age or older: Women who have had 3 or more consecutive normal Pap tests and no abnormal results in the past 20 years can stop cervical cancer screening.
- For those with a history of cervical cancer, DES exposure before birth, HIV infection, or a weakened immune system: Continue screening as long as you remain in good health.
- For those with a removed uterus and cervix: No screening required unless the surgery was for cervical cancer or precancer.
- For those with a removed uterus: Continue screening in accordance with above mentioned guidelines.
Getting vaccinated against HPV is also recommended for protection against the types of HPV that cause most cervical cancers.
Pap test (Pap smear): A smear test where cells from the cervix are collected and examined under a microscope to identify precancerous or cancerous cells.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹550
HPV test: Similar to the Pap test, cells are collected from the cervix and tested for HPV DNA.
Cost: ₹1,500 – ₹3,000
Co-testing (Pap and HPV test): Cells collected from the cervix are tested for both abnormal cells and high-risk HPV.
Cost: Around ₹3,450
Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid (VIA): Detects precancerous lesions by applying acetic acid (vinegar) to the cervix and visually inspecting it for white patches.
Cost: Around ₹2
Visual Inspection with Lugol’s Iodine (VILI): Similar to VIA, it detects abnormal cells by applying iodine to the cervix, and areas that do not stain brown are inspected for abnormalities.
Cost: ₹33
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3. Ovarian cancer
The most lethal of the common cancers among women, ovarian cancer affects the ovaries. The risk increases with age and is higher for women with a family history of ovarian cancer or certain genetic mutations.
High-risk women:
- Ages 30 – 35: Bi-annual screening for women with inherited risk factor BRCA1 and mismatch repair gene mutations.
- Ages 35 – 40: Bi-annual screening for women with inherited risk factor BRCA2 mutations.
Symptom-based screening:
- Ages 50 and older: Persistent and progressive symptoms (lasting more than 12 days a month) – bloating, pelvic or abdominal pain, early satiety, nausea, vomiting, increased urinary urgency or frequency, symptoms suggesting IBS, vaginal discharge, or unexplained weight loss.
- Missing a period for four consecutive months should always be evaluated, as it can occasionally be a sign of ovarian cancer.
Transvaginal ultrasound: A transvaginal or transabdominal ultrasound is used to obtain images of the pelvic structures, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. This imaging technique can detect the presence of abnormal growths in the ovaries.
Cost: ₹700 – ₹1,800
CA-125 blood test: This test checks for elevated blood levels of a protein called CA125 (cancer antigen 125) that can indicate ovarian cancer.
Cost: ₹1,199 – ₹1,300
4. Endometrial cancer
Affecting the inner lining of the uterus, endometrial cancer is often detected early due to abnormal vaginal bleeding. Menopausal women or those who have never conceived fall are at high risk of being affected. Obesity is also another risk factor, given that excess fat in the body can alter hormonal balance. Additional women with a family history of Lynch syndrome (an inherited cancer syndrome) are also considered high risk.
Women at high risk for endometrial cancer may benefit from annual testing, even if they have no symptoms.
Pap test (Pap smear): A smear test where cells from the cervix are collected and examined under a microscope to identify precancerous or cancerous cells.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹550
Transvaginal ultrasound: A transvaginal or transabdominal ultrasound is used to obtain images of the pelvic structures, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. It also helps determine the thickness of the endometrium.
Cost: ₹700 – ₹1,800
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Screening tests specific to cancers affecting women
In India, there are several screening tests available to detect different types of cancers in men, and they each have varying costs.
1. Prostate cancer
Prostate cancer is the predominant form of cancer affecting men, that originates in the prostate gland responsible for sperm fluid production. Factors such as a familial history of prostate cancer and elevated testosterone levels amplify the risk. While it can happen at any age, the likelihood increases with age. Most prostate cancers are found in men over the age of 65.
- Ages 40 – 50: Start screening for those at higher risk
- Ages 50 and above: Commence screening for men at average risk with an anticipated lifespan of at least a decade.
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) test: Measures any elevated levels of PSA in the blood, which can indicate prostate cancer.
Cost: Around ₹975
Digital Rectal Examination (DRE): A doctor inserts a gloved finger into the rectum to feel for abnormalities in the prostate.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹1,000
2. Testicular cancer
Testicular cancer develops in the testicles (testes), responsible for producing male sex hormones and sperm for reproduction. Compared to other cancers, testicular cancer is rare and occurs more frequently in white men than in Asian or African men. In India, the incidence is among the lowest globally, with fewer than 1 man per 100,000 affected. Though it can occur at any age, it remains the most common cancer in men aged 20 to 35.
Men with a testicle that has not descended at birth are at a higher risk of developing testicular cancer in either testicle, even if the testicle has been surgically relocated to the scrotum. Additional conditions that cause abnormal development of the testicles can increase the risk of testicular cancer. Other risk factors include family history and infertility.
Ages 15-35: Regular self-examinations and routine screening is recommended.
Clinical examination: Physical examination, where the doctor palpates the testicles and surrounding areas to check for lumps, swelling, or other signs of cancer.
Cost: ₹500 – ₹1,000
Ultrasound: A non-invasive imaging test that uses sound waves to create pictures of the testicles and scrotum. It helps in differentiating between benign conditions and cancerous tumours.
Cost: ₹810 – ₹1,932
Disclaimer
All costs can vary based on the healthcare provider, location, and specific medical facilities. It is always advisable to check with the specific hospital or diagnostic centre for the most accurate and up-to-date pricing.
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What are the risks of cancer screening?
False positives
Sometimes, the screening tests might indicate cancer, when there really isn't. This can cause unnecessary stress, requiring more tests or even invasive procedures.
False negatives
There's a chance that screening might miss the presence of cancer, providing false reassurance and delaying diagnosis and treatment.
Overdiagnosis
Screening can find slow-growing cancers that wouldn't have caused any harm during your lifetime. This means you might end up getting unnecessary treatments like surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy.
Exposure to radiation
Some screening tests, like mammograms and CT scans, involve radiation, which though a small risk, can slightly increase your chances of developing cancer over time.
Complications from follow-up procedures
Abnormal results from screening often lead to more tests, like biopsies. But these procedures come with their own risks, such as infection or bleeding.
Psychological impact
Waiting for screening results can cause severe anxiety and emotional distress, especially if the results are unclear or require further investigation.
Remember, these risks don’t necessarily mean you shouldn’t get screened. It’s just important to be aware of them so you can make an informed decision.
Cancer survival rates in India
According to international studies and the World Health Organization (WHO), cancer survival rates in India are either stagnant or increasing at a slower pace compared to developed countries. Despite improvements in awareness and medical facilities, there remains a significant disparity in survival rates between Indian cancer patients and those in many other countries.
The cancer survival rate in India is affected by multiple factors such as the type and stage of cancer at diagnosis, access to healthcare, and socioeconomic conditions. Late detection is a significant challenge, exacerbated by limited awareness, insufficient screening programs, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure. Moreover, the availability and affordability of advanced treatments are restricted, making it difficult for many to access necessary care.
Survival rates
Stomach cancer: Only 19% of patients survive compared to 25-30% in other countries.
Colon cancer: The survival rate is 37% in India, while it ranges from 50-59% elsewhere.
Liver cancer: Merely 4% of patients survive for five years, compared to 10-20% globally.
Breast and Prostate cancers: India sees a 60% survival rate, whereas it is 80% in advanced countries.
(Source: Cion Cancer Clinic)
Mortality rates
70% of cancer-related deaths in India occur within the first year of diagnosis due to late detection and limited access to quality healthcare.
80% of patients seek medical advice at advanced stages, significantly reducing recovery chances.
71% of cancer deaths in India occur in individuals aged 30-69, whereas in developed countries, higher incidences are seen in those above 50.
15% of cancer patients in India are children and adolescents, compared to the global average of 0.5%.
(Source: theBMJ)
It cannot be stressed enough that cancer screening is vital for the early detection and effective treatment of cancer, for a better chance at successful intervention and survival. Not only does it broaden treatment options and reduce mortality rates, but it also lowers treatment costs and enhances the quality of life for patients. Despite the challenges, increasing awareness and accessibility to screening can play a pivotal role in combating cancer and reducing its impact on individuals and society. Emphasising the importance of regular screenings and preventive measures is essential in our collective fight against this pervasive disease.
Sources for all the cancer screening costs:
Aster Labs, The Indian Express, Metropolis Healthcare, CARE Hospitals, Lybrate, Tata Medical Centre, Book Meri Lab, Redcliffe Labs, Max Lab, Labs Advisor, Hexa Health, Yashoda Hospitals, 1mg, The Economic Times, Apollo, Medicover Hospitals, DNA Labs India, ClinicSpots, PACE Hospitals, Vaidam.
In times of need, support means everything, and with Milaap, you need not look any further. Milaap enables you to set up a fundraiser for any medical emergency within minutes, and you can easily raise funds for treatment expenses.
Do you know someone who could benefit from fundraising? Simply refer them to us and we’ll be happy to lend a hand.
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For more information, write to us at cx@milaap.org.
